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Thus, we are left with a need for other methods that support informal communication in geographically dispersed collaborations. In Jehn et al. All three types of conflict have been investigated within the context of geographically distributed versus co-located teams, with mixed results. Several researchers have concluded that geographically distributed teams experience higher levels of conflict [ 8 , 46 , , , , ]. In particular, geographically distributed teams are more susceptible to interpersonal [ ] and task-based conflict [ , ].
This effect can likely be attributed to the evidence that conflict in distributed teams is known to escalate and often remains unidentified and unaddressed for long periods of time [ 8 ].
As a result of reliance on computer-mediated communication, virtual teams featuring high geographical dispersion have higher perceptions of unfairness, which also leads to internal conflict [ ]. One pervasive issue is the development of geographically based subgroups within a collaboration that provoke us-versus-them attitudes [ 8 , 46 ]. Interviews exposed that the team was actually comprised of four groups under one manager and did not act or feel like one cohesive team [ 8 ].
These conflicts are similar to those associated with communicating at a distance. Conflicts frequently occur as a consequence of assumptions and incorrectly interpreted communications [ ]. Furthermore, missing information and miscommunications between geographically distant sites result in teammates making harsh attributions about their collaborators at other locations [ 46 ]. These types of intra-group conflicts can have important ramifications for distant collaborations.
Us-versus-them attitudes often lead to limited information flow, which in turn leads to reduced cohesion and faulty attributions [ 46 ]. Moreover, intra-team conflict causes problems that result in delays in work progress [ 8 ] and resolution of work issues [ ]. Researchers have identified several things that can mitigate conflict in virtual teams. Both shared context [ ] and a shared sense of team identity have a moderating effect on conflict [ , ], particularly task and affective conflict [ , ].
Familiarity, in addition, has been shown to reduce conflict [ ]. Spontaneous communication—which, as previously discussed, is primarily achieved face-to-face—has been demonstrated to mitigate conflict in virtual teams, particularly due to its role in facilitating the identification and handling of conflict [ ].
There are also more instances of task conflict in teams that rely heavily on communication technology [ ]. Specific types of conflict can be managed through different forms of computer-mediated communication technology. Task related conflict, for example, is best managed through synchronous communication technologies such as video-conferencing [ ]. In this case, immediate feedback is not as necessary [ ]. Although the above work has come to an agreement as to whether geographic distance has a negative effect on conflict, contradictions do exist in the literature.
This discrepancy is particularly interesting given that the participants in both studies did research and product development, and are therefore comparable.
Thus, it is uncertain as to which conclusion is accurate, presenting an open question. Temporal distance is distinctly different than geographical distance and should be treated as a separate dimension [ 49 ].
Temporal distance can be caused by both time shifts in work patterns and differences in time zones [ ]. In fact, time zone differences and time shifts in work patterns can be manipulated to either decrease or increase temporal distance [ 2 ]. It can be argued that temporal distance is more influential than geographic distance [ 75 , , , ] due to the challenges it poses on coordination [ 49 , 74 , 75 , , , , ]. One key disadvantage to high temporal distance is the reduced number of overlapping work hours between collaboration sites [ 11 , 33 , ].
In fact, temporal distance can lead to incompatible schedules that result in project delays and can only be overcome with careful planning [ ].
Fewer overlapping work hours results in communication breakdowns, such as an increased need for rework and clarifications, and difficulties adjusting to new problems [ 73 , 74 ]. Additionally, reduced overlap in work hours results in coordination delays [ 49 ]. For example, a distant teammate may not be available when their expertise is needed [ 2 ].
In some cases, this unavailability causes the collaborator in need of help to make assumptions based on local culture and preferences in order to reach an immediate resolution of issues—which can cause rework when these assumptions are incorrect [ ].
The issue of the lack of overlapping work hours also causes problems with synchronization; synchronous communication is often significantly limited in temporally dispersed collaborations, which can delay vital feedback [ 2 ] and increase response time [ ]. In fact, scheduling global meetings can be virtually impossible for this reason [ ].
Furthermore, as with geographic distance, temporal distance decreases the number of opportunities for informal communication [ 93 , ] since the window in which all collaborators are available is small. Communication can be disrupted by temporal distance in other ways. This invisible communication would result in collaborators feeling left out of key decisions, which had toxic effects on the project. This effect is especially unfortunate given that temporal distance makes repairing the consequences of misunderstandings and reworking portions of the project more costly [ 73 ].
In addition to these issues, temporally dispersed collaborations are often plagued by delays, while co-located collaborations are considered more efficient [ 19 ]. Coordination delay increases with temporal distance—delay between collaborators located in the same city was smaller than that for collaborators in different cities, which was smaller than the delay found in collaborators located in different countries [ 49 ].
Delays in responses from collaborators can be especially frustrating and problematic [ ] and can lengthen the amount of time required to resolve issues [ 19 ], sometimes dragging problems out across multiple days [ , ]. Thus, timely completion of tasks in temporally dispersed collaborations is crucial [ ]. Coordination delays are also shown to cause additional problems, particularly decreased performance in terms of meeting key requirements, staying within the budget, and completing work on time [ 49 ].
There are several social approaches to mitigating these issues. In contrast, Holmstrom et al. However, this technique requires additional oversight time to facilitate the transfer of work from one team to the other, including time to discuss arising issues [ ]. A competing technique is to limit the number of time zones in which sites are located [ ]. Additionally, some coordination issues can be mitigated by careful division of work which takes into account being separated by several time zones [ 49 ].
Technology also plays a key role in mitigating the effects of temporal distance. Asynchronous communication tools e. However, using asynchronous tools is known to increase the amount of time that a collaborator has to wait for a response [ 2 ] and make temporal boundaries more difficult to overcome than spatial boundaries in instances where sites do not have overlap in their workdays [ 49 ].
Furthermore, the process of writing ideas in emails increases the risk of misunderstandings between collaborators [ 57 ] over talking in person or via the telephone. Finally, developers starting their workday may become overwhelmed by the number of asynchronous messages left during the previous night [ 19 ].
Given these drawbacks to current technology and the unlikelihood that global collaboration is going to stop, it is worthwhile to ask how can we better support communication in temporally distant work. There is also some question as to whether coordination costs are higher in teams that are temporally distributed. Espinosa and Carmel [ 73 ], however, state that temporal distance reduces coordination costs when team members are not working concurrently because no direct coordination takes place when the two teammates are not working at the same time [ 2 ].
Clearly, this discrepancy needs to be resolved. As previously discussed in Sects. In contrast, perceived a. These perceptions of proximity have both an affective and a cognitive component [ ]. Perceived distance is a distinctly different idea than spatio-temporal distance and one is not necessarily related to the other [ ].
This symbolic meaning is defined by the teams sense of shared identity and their use of communication media, which is primarily synchronous [ ]. In fact, as people interact strongly and frequently with other team members, they can create a sense of closeness independent of physical proximity [ ].
The concept of perceived distance is why collaborators may be geographically distant and yet feel as though they are proximally near [ ]. Perceived proximity can have a profound influence on team interaction [ 34 , 82 , ] For example, perceptions of proximity are known to influence decision making in virtual teams [ ].
In , Siebdrat et al. Furthermore, Siebdrat et al. As a result, they concluded that perceived distance is more indicative of collaboration challenges than spatio-temporal distance. Findings from other work implies that distance can affect collaborators that are all in the same country at a single site [ 4 ], with low national heterogeneity and low spatio-temporal distance.
It is uncertain whether this situation would still have high perceived distance given the limited work available. Therefore, there is a clear need for a better understanding of the relationship between perceived distance, spatio-temporal distance, and collaboration. In addition to the challenges associated with the three main types of distance discussed previously in this paper i. To answer Question 1b What other factors contribute to the factors and challenges that impact distance collaboration?
Work can be categorized as either loosely or tightly coupled [ ]. Tightly coupled work relies heavily on the skills of groups of workers with exceedingly interdependent components; this type of work necessitates frequent, rich communication and is usually non-routine. Loosely coupled work, in contrast, is typically either routine or has fewer dependencies than tightly coupled work. Interdependence between components, and thus tightly coupled work, is at the heart of collaboration [ ].
In addition, complex tasks lead to higher trust and collaboration than simple tasks and task complexity is a critical factor that molds the interactions and relationships between team members [ 42 ].
Marlow et al. They therefore suggest that communication becomes increasingly important to promoting high levels of performance.
In , Strauss described the additional work necessary for collaborators to negotiate, organize, and align their cooperative yet individual activities that occur as a result of interdependence. In doing so, Strauss discusses the concept of articulation work—by his definition, work concerned with assembling tasks and adjusting larger groups of tasks e.
Articulation work is further described as the additional work needed to handle the interdependencies in work between multiple collaborators [ 72 ]. Virtual teams face greater challenges when managing these dependencies as a result of distance, both spatial and temporal, and culture [ 72 ]. Because interdependent i. In contrast, loosely coupled work does not require as much communication as tightly coupled work, and so is easier to complete in geographically distant collaborations.
Thus, tightly coupled work in virtual teams leads to less successful projects [ ]. This observation is important since most projects have both varieties of work [ ]. To combat the challenges associated with relying on tightly coupled work, many organizations take a social approach that arranges for co-located team members to work on tightly coupled aspects of the project while distance workers tackle loosely coupled parts [ 64 , ], facilitated by deconstructing tasks into smaller pieces [ 93 ].
For tightly coupled work, some organizations choose to use extreme [ ] or radical [ ] collaboration setups where teams work in an enclosed environment in order to maximize communication and facilitate the flow of information. In contrast, for loosely coupled work, some organizations choose to minimize interaction [ ]. This is essential for managing highly complex tasks and avoiding misunderstandings that can arise as a result of high task complexity combined with high virtuality [ ].
This case study is centered on a large research project investigating global software development with several geographically dispersed partners. This study also provides evidence that tightly coupled work resulted in stronger collaborations. They observed that tightly coupled work required collaborators to frequently interact to do their work and, as a result, forced these collaborators to know more about each other, help each other, and cultivate strong engagement despite being at geographically distant sites.
In contrast, loosely coupled work did not require the same level of engagement, resulting in collaborators feeling more detached from the project. Complex, tightly coupled tasks may be more difficult to the reliance of virtual teams on virtual tools and tendency to disband after a task has been completed [ 12 ].
Furthermore, the combination of high task complexity and high levels of virtuality lends itself to misunderstandings and mistakes [ ]. As a result, effective communication is more critical for high performance in virtual teams for these tasks [ ].
Despite this, Marlow et al. Given the characteristics of CMC technologies like video conferencing, which preserve much of the nuances present in face-to-face communication, we posit that shared cognition can be developed through the frequent, consistent use of this medium for communication. One of the largest challenges faced by virtual teams is the management of team effort [ ].
Explicit management is needed for distributed, collaborative work, particularly by leaders trained in project management, in order to ensure the success of a project [ , ].
Collaborative projects are considered difficult to manage, especially as the number of workers associated with the project increases. Leadership is challenging in geographically dispersed teams because effective leadership is highly dependent on quality interactions that are more difficult across distance [ ]. For example, Hoch and Kozlowski [ ] found that hierarchical leadership is less effective in geographically dispersed teams than in co-located teams.
Furthermore, distributed projects face even more obstacles, such as increased coordination problems [ ] including identifying and overcoming cultural differences, ensuring that all team members are heard [ ], and regulating the inter-dependencies between resources, task components, and personnel [ ]. Virtual teams face challenges related to leadership, such as nourishing an environment that fosters creativity [ 96 ] and emergent leadership [ 35 ].
Effective leadership benefits geographically dispersed virtual teams in a multitude of ways, including helping virtual teams overcome many of the challenges caused by distance, including facilitating satisfaction and motivation [ 88 , ].
Virtual leadership can help collaboration within the team through providing training, guidance, resources, coaching, and facilitating relationship building [ ]. Furthermore, leadership in virtual teams can facilitate knowledge sharing and the building of shared mental models [ ]. Mental models are defined by Johnson-Laird [ ] as internal representations of knowledge that match the situation they represent and consist of both abstract concepts and perceptible objects and images.
These mental models may reflect detailed information about how the task is to be performed i. These benefits, in turn enhance virtual team effectiveness [ ]. Task complexity can be a mitigating factor in the effectiveness of leadership.
In particular, positive perceptions of leadership communication results in positive perceptions of performance [ ]. Leadership can have a strong influence on interpersonal team dynamics and trust as well. Prior work indicates that leaders play an important role in enhancing team performance by demonstrating empathy and understanding [ ], monitoring and reducing tensions [ ], and clearly articulating role and relationship expectations for team members [ ].
Leaders in virtual teams have the capacity to prevent and resolve team relationship and task conflicts [ ]. Furthermore, effective leadership can have a positive influence on affection, cognition, and motivation [ ]. It is particularly important for leaders to bridge co-located and remote team members in order to promote team effectiveness [ ]. Leaders can build trust within virtual teams by engaging in behaviors such as early face-to-face meetings, using rich communication channels, and facilitating synchronous information exchange [ ].
High levels of consistent communication between leaders and team members is positively related to trust and engagement within virtual teams [ 80 ]. Individual leadership styles have their own impact on virtual team productivity.
Prior work has focused on four key types of leadership: transformational, empowering, emergent, and shared. Transformational leadership is characterized by idealized influence, inspirational motivation, individual consideration, and intellectual stimulation [ 65 ]. This type of leadership enables followers to reach their potential and maximize performance [ 65 ]. However, transformational leadership, while effective in co-located or slightly dispersed teams, is less effective in improving the performance of highly geographically dispersed teams [ 69 ].
Empowering leadership combines sharing power with individual team members while also providing a facilitative and supportive environment [ ]. Moreover, empowering leadership has a positive effect on team performance at high levels of team geographic dispersion [ ].
However, it is important to note that teams may miss out on the benefits provided by empowering leadership if they lack situational judgement [ ]. Emergent leaders are people who exert significant influence over other members of a team, even though they may not be vested with formal authority [ ]. Emergent leadership has a positive relationship with virtual team performance [ ]. In particular, emergent leadership has positive relationships with team agreeableness, openness to experience at the individual team member level, and emotional stability [ ].
In addition, emergent leadership has a positive relationship to individual conscientiousness, which is associated with being careful, responsible, and organized [ ]. These all have positive influences on virtual team performance [ ]. Shared leadership is a collective leadership processing featuring multiple team members participating in team leadership functions [ ]. Shared leadership has a positive influence on the performance of virtual teams [ , ].
The structural support provided by shared leadership can supplement traditional leadership; in this situation, shared leaders assume the responsibility of building trust and relationships among team members [ ].
Shared leadership provides many benefits to virtual teams such as emotional stability, agreeableness, mediating effects on the relationship between personality composition and team performance [ ]. Shared and emergent leadership styles share some effects on virtual teams. Specifically, these types of leadership will affect the relationships between team conscientiousness, emotional stability, and team openness such that they will be stronger in teams with higher levels of virtuality than in teams with lower levels of virtuality [ ].
However, shared leadership is facilitated by the socially-related exchange of information that creates commitment, trust, and cohesion among team members [ ]. In co-located teams, this exchange of knowledge is enabled through social interactions like informal conversations, socializing outside of work, and through meetings [ ]. However, this type of informal and face-to-face communication is less common and feasible in virtual teams for reasons that will be discussed later.
As a result, it is necessary for organizations to make efforts to facilitate shared leadership through training [ ]. In addition to leadership style, the level of authority differentiation and skill level of the team members have an affect on team-level outcomes. Among teams with less skilled members, centralized authority i. In contrast, centralized authority has a negative influence on team innovation, learning, adaption, and performance as well as member satisfaction and identification among teams with highly skilled members [ ].
Decentralized authority i. Other studies showed that virtual teams face challenges that could be mitigated with explicit management [ 83 , , , ]. They found that geographically defined subgroups led to significantly negative outcomes with regards to coordination problems e.
The effects of configuration on distance work will be discussed further in this section. Similarly, problems of coordination e. These results are complemented by findings that distance hampers the coordination of virtual teams via synchronous meetings [ ]. Similarly, coordination in distance collaborations is hindered by difficulties in scheduling synchronous meetings due to limited windows of time where all parties are able to be present [ 83 ].
These findings complement those of Sect. Prior work has suggested various strategies for effective leadership and explicit management. For example, Hill and Bartol [ ] suggest team training that focuses on strategies for overcoming challenges encountered in dispersed teamwork. Another, related, strategy is to focus more attention on setting norms for behavior that may aid appropriate situational judgment among team members when launching geographically dispersed teams [ ].
A different approach is to consider personality dimensions such as agreeableness, conscientiousness, openness, emotion stability, and moderate extroversion, which all have positive influences on team performance, when selecting virtual team members [ ].
However, some types of collaborations, particularly research collaborations consisting mainly of scientists, avoid the application of explicit management in their projects [ ]. There is an opportunity for research to investigate how to support explicit management in distance collaborations that typically reject this type of administration.
Site dispersion is best characterized as the degree to which collaborators are at distinct geographic locations [ ]. There is an inverse relationship between the number of sites and project success [ 50 , 51 , ].
High site dispersion is associated with higher amounts of faultlines i. Specifically, faultlines escalate polarization, subgrouping, and the effect of causing collaborators in other locations to feel more distant [ 47 ]. Having a large number of sites, in particular, increases the odds that differences in demographics will create these divisions [ 47 ].
Additionally, greater numbers of sites predict fewer coordination activities and decreased outcomes [ ]. Knowledge sharing decreases [ 40 , 83 ] and the cost of managing team goals increases [ 97 ] as the number of sites increases. Imbalance refers to the proportion of collaborators dispersed across a set of sites and can have negative effects on collaboration, such as conflicts between large and small sites [ 8 ].
For example, imbalanced teams often have unequal amounts of contribution towards shared team tasks [ ]. Furthermore, levels of conflict and trust differ between imbalanced and balanced teams [ , ]. In particular, larger subgroups in imbalanced teams feel stronger effects from faultlines on conflict and trust [ ]. However, it is unclear what the ramifications are of these differences in trust and conflict [ , ], presenting an opportunity for research. Imbalanced teams consisting of one isolated collaborator working with a co-located team function differently than highly dispersed, balanced teams [ ].
For instance, communication in these imbalanced teams is different because the co-located team members communicate both face-to-face and electronically with each other, but, in the absence of travel, only communicate electronically with the isolated team member [ ]. This disparity in communication methods impedes informal interaction and spontaneous communication [ 45 ].
This also has a unique effect on communication where the co-located team feels compelled to communicate with those isolated collaborators more frequently to make up for this difference [ ].
Isolated workers are also more likely to feel the effects of a lack of motivational sense of the presence of others [ ]. These isolated workers identify less with the team and feel less like they are part of the group, leading to a feeling of distance from the rest of the team [ 45 ], which translates to feeling differently about group processes and outcomes [ 27 ]. Furthermore, isolation and feelings of alienation can have a negative effect on relationships among workers in geographically dispersed virtual teams, increasing the likelihood of feeling discomfort and reducing the likelihood of trusting team members that they do not know well [ 67 ].
Configurationally imbalanced teams i. Conflict can be reduced by a shared sense of team identity [ , ], meaning that fostering this sense of identification with the team can mitigate both problems. Since team identification can be built via face-to-face communication [ 54 ]; we posit that in the absence of face-to-face communication, imbalanced teams should make use of CMC technologies that facilitate nuanced expression, such as video conferencing tools.
The diversity of a team encompasses several factors that correlate with a set of challenges that greatly affect virtual teams. This section will focus on the issues of common ground, socio-cultural distance, and work culture. In the process, this section will discuss the remaining challenges identified by Olson and Olson [ , ], continued from Sect.
Distance collaboration becomes easier if team members have common ground i. Schmidtke and Cummings [ ] found that as virtualness increases in a team, mental models become more complex, which negatively affects teamwork.
They also found that as virtualness increases, similarity and accuracy of mental models decreases [ ]. Accuracy and similarity play vital roles in reducing the negative effect of complexity on teamwork behaviors [ ]. Fortunately, specialized training can increase mental model accuracy [ ]. As virtual teams rely more on computer mediated communication, temporal stability i.
High temporal stability is associated with positive team outcomes related to related to adaptation, learning, innovation, and performance, as well as satisfaction and identification with the team [ ]. In addition to this, the extent to which virtual team members share common goals is critical in determining the success of the team [ 42 , ]. For this reason, team leaders should ensure that team members commit to the task and common goals [ 10 ].
Research [ ] has shown that it is more difficult for virtual teams that are geographically dispersed to develop a shared mental model. In particular, the process of grounding is made more difficult when there is a higher risk of misinterpretation, such as in the presence of multiple cultural practices and languages [ ].
The significant amount of time required to establish common conceptual frameworks and personal relationships can pose a significant constraint on collaboration in virtual teams [ 54 ]. The consequences of lack of common ground are primarily difficulty building trust [ , , ] and difficulties associated with communication.
Lack of common ground can limit the ability to communicate about and retain contextual information about teammates located at other sites, including their teammates situation and constraints, especially as the number of sites increases, in turn hindering their collaborative interactions and performance [ 46 , ].
This contextual information includes, but is not limited to, local holidays and customs, site-specific processes and standards, competing responsibilities, and pressure from supervisors and teammates [ 46 ].
Common ground is also necessary to understand which messages or parts of messages are the most salient, which is particularly problematic because there may be restricted feedback [ 46 ]. The lack of common ground can also create problems interpreting the meaning of silence, which makes it difficult to know when a decision has been made [ 46 ]. Furthermore, lack of common ground can result in an uneven distribution of information and differences in speed of access to that information, which causes teammates at different sites to have different information and creates misunderstandings that are nontrivial to rectify [ 46 ].
This concept encompasses national culture and language, politics, and the motivations and work values of an individual [ 2 ]. It is known that geographically distributed collaborations are more socio-culturally diverse than co-located ones [ ] because distance typically increases demographic heterogeneity especially racial or ethnic heterogeneity [ ].
Members of a virtual team with different cultural backgrounds are likely to have different behaviors within the teams, including how they interact with their teammates [ ].
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